2.
  -2024
   
  
(    )
 :      :75
:     -    ,          
                
 -
1. -     ,   ,  ,      
                  
   
2.       ,   ISPs (    ),  ,
             '    

 -
3.           POP3  IMAP     
-    '              

2.
4.                    
,  ,           
        
 -
5.                FTP      
             
6.                
         '  ,   
,       
-
7. HTML              
HTML              
      
8.      HTML           
  ,               , 
                   
 
2.
  -2024
   
  
(    )
 :      :75
:     -    ,          
                
 -
1. -     ,   ,  ,       
                  
   
:󺡒󺡓󺡔󺡕󺡖󺡗󺡘󺡙󺡚󺡛    :   
   
             

,           
  , 
                  
     ,   ,     
    ,       
- " " ( ) ,     ,     
    '   : , , ,  
󺝚󺝛󺝜󺝝󺝞󺝟󺝠1.   -  
    ,       ()      
      '   ,      ,    
       
2.
   ( ):
 ---  ---  --- 
|
  ( )
 :
    :      ,       
  
   :       
 :
  :    '    ,       (
)
 :    ()   ,        
   :       
  :
                 
  
󽇐2.     
           ,         
                   ,
      ,        
   (  ):

|
 -- / -- 
|

 :
    
:       ,      -
 
     :     ,       ;
   
2.
:   
          
 :
 :   ()     
   :     ()  ,      

  :
  ,     -       

     
󷄧󹹯󹹰3.   -   
                '  
                 


   ( ):
 ---  --- 
| |
--------------------------
 :
   :    

        
  
   :        
 :
 :          ,       
 
:  '          
  :
                 
  (LAN)    
2.
󺂧4.     -   
,                   
 ,        ,       
   ( ):
 ---- 
|\ /|
| \ / |
| \ / |
 ---- 
 :
 :     ,   
   
   
:      
 
 :      ,        
 :
  :    ()   ,      

  :         - 
 
  :
  ,   ,         
  

󽀼󽀽󽁀󽁁󽀾󽁂󽀿󽁃   ( )


 
 
 

  
, 
   =  
  , 
 
 
 
 
,

  =  
, 
, 

 
  
,
  
  '  =
, 
 
 
   
 

 ,

, 
,  
 
2.
󷘹󷘴󷘵󷘶󷘷󷘸 :   
 ,      ,      ' - 
  ,          ' -   
        
         
           
     
   
 ,   --- 
       , 
  -           


2.       ,   ISPs (    ),  ,
             '     

: ,    
   www.example.com    
 ,    '      ,       
      ,    -  -  ,  
                 
     ,          ,
ISPs, ,      ,       
    ,   
󷊆󷊇        
        
        ,
, ,             
   ,   
           
 

   ,      '  :
1.  (    )-      
2.  -    
3. -   
4.  -   (     )      
   
2.
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼ISPs (    )  
ISPs         , 
 '  

   :ISP         
         , , 
            
ISP   :
o   ISP: 
     (   
, , )
o  ISP:    ISP      
o  ISP ( 1):AT&T, Tata Communications,  NTT  
          - 
 
ISP  ,              
  
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼 :    
   
 '  ,          ?   
 
   :             
      '           
      
  :            
 '     ,   
    ( ) 
 '      
 :
o   :          ISP
  
o ISP  :,        
o   :     '       
 
   
        (      ),
    
         
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼:     
 
www.example.com   ,    
 ?   
2.
   :      , ,
              
""  
    :
o  : 
o  : 
o   :    
o  :       

     -   ()         
   
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼 :  
 , 
 ' 
  -    
   
   : , ,        
   
  :   ,         

 -  :           ,
   
󽀼󽀽󽁀󽁁󽀾󽁂󽀿󽁃   '   
       
 '       
   :
1. URL    :
www.youtube.com '  
2. DNS :       (DNS)    , 
 -    IP  (  142.250.190.78)    
3. ISP :   ISP   ,     
  
4.  '  :            --
   ,   '     
 
5.    : YouTube   ' 
 ,   
  

6.   :            '
  
7.     :     ,     
 ,     
 
      ,         
2.
󷇮󷇭-  
   '   :
      
           
 ',      
  , - ,        
    
󹶓󹶔󹶕󹶖󹶗󹶘  
     :
  , ,    
    
 ,
       ISP    
󼩺󼩻  
  
:     
     
 
 
:  ,           
 
:    
         ,  
    
 :  ,  ,      
  
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼 
1.       ,  ISP, ,    '  
2.     
2.
3.   ,          
4.     
5.        
6.         ,      
 
󹶓󹶔󹶕󹶖󹶗󹶘
    ,          ISP
 
 ,     ,     , 
               , 
 ' ,        
     
  '         ,  
         ,    ,  
         
;       
  ,     ,     
 -
3.           POP3  IMAP     
-    '              

:󹷝󹷞󹷟󹷠󹷡󹷣󹷢             (POP3  IMAP)
󷇮󷇭 
:    
  ,      
     
,        ,        
    
 
   ,            
          POP3  IMAP   

 
󷪏󷪐󷪑󷪒󷪓󷪔    -   
2.
                 -
 ,          
    :
1.    (MUA):
o         
o : ,  , 
o      
    
2.     (MTA):
o   
o       ()      
   () ' 
 
o : , 
3.     (MDA):
o        '   ,    
 (MDA)     ( )    
4.    (POP3/IMAP):
o  ,         ,   
         
o      POP3  IMAP    -    

   :
󹷲󹷳󹷴󹷺󹷸󹷹󹷻󹷼󹷽󹷾POP3   IMAP -  -   
,             
 :
󹷤󹷥󹷦󹷧󹷨󹷩󹷪󹷫1. POP3 (    3) - - 
POP3         
        

2.
 
POP3   Gmail  Outlook  ,     '
       '      
                
 
POP3   :
1.   :   ()     , 

     
2.    
:
       ,    
3.   :-       
POP3   :
1.    : 
  '    ,      
  '    
       
2.      :      ,     '
   
3.    
:  , ,  /
    

   :POP3           ,  
    
󹷤󹷥󹷦󹷧󹷨󹷩󹷪󹷫2. IMAP (   ) -    
IMAP                 
    
  '   ,  
        

        '     
IMAP   :
1. -  :
   , ,     '
  
2.  : 
  '         
  ,      
3.  :
   '   ,    
       
 

2.
IMAP   :
1.   :  '    ,     
    
2.      :        
 
3.   :          
 
       
   :IMAP , ,         
     
󽀼󽀽󽁀󽁁󽀾󽁂󽀿󽁃POP3   IMAP–  

POP3 (   )
 
 '   
  
  
  

 
 
 
   
  
󷘹󷘴󷘵󷘶󷘷󷘸 :      
,      :
3                 
 , -     
IMAPName    ,        
     ,           
   ,  ,      , IMAP  
     , POP3  
  -        
         
2.
4.                    
,  ,           
        
: , 
   , Chrome  Firefox  -  
'   , www.wikipedia.org   ,    ,   
          ,      
          
  :   
       
 -   ,  , 
,               ,  
,  ,  ,   ,    , 
      
󷊆󷊇    ?
            ' 
  ,            
HTTP/HTTPS           ,  (HTML, CSS,
JavaScript, , )   ,        
   
 
 :
  : =   
  : =  
:       
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼     
1.      :
o           
o :  
www.bbc.com   ,     
 , HTML, CSS,     
2.  :
o     ,     
o   , 
     
3. :
o , ,       
o        
4. :
o      , -   , 
 (HTTPS)    
2.
5.  :
o     ,     ,   
  
6.   :
o     , ,      
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼        
   ( ):URL     
:     
 :   
 /  :     
  :    
 :  ,     
/-:  ( ,  ,  )
 -   :, , , ,  ' 
 
󽀼󽀽󽁀󽁁󽀾󽁂󽀿󽁃 
            
   :
1. HTML    : HTML      DOM (  
)  
 
2. CSS    :     DOM      
  
3. :          
4. :, ,     
5. :      '    
 ():
[HTML + CSS + JS] → [DOM + CSSOM] → [ ] → [] → [] → [
]
     ,       
󷇮󷇭  
        
       
 :
2.
-  :
o /: 
o : 
o : 
         
    :   HTML5/CSS3    


 -  :   '       '  
 
:           
󹺣󹺤󹺥    
     ,         
:
1.  :          
2.    :     
3. --- :    
4.    :      
     :
HTTPS  
 ( )
 
    
󹿶󹿷󹿸󹿹󹿺󹿻󹿼󹿽󹿾󹿿󺀍󺀎󺀀󺀁󺀂󺀃󺀄󺀅󺀆󺀇󺀏󺀐󺀈󺀑󺀒󺀉󺀓󺀊󺀋󺀌     
            :
:      
:/      
  :      
 
        :
/ 
-    
"  " 
-     ( , , )
2.
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼     
           
  :
 :      
:-      
  :      
  :  '    
 
 :

  
   ( , VPN )
:
           
       
 ,             
󹶓󹶔󹶕󹶖󹶗󹶘   
     :
 (HTML, CSS, JS): 
 :      
 (DOM ): ' 
 ():   
 
  :          
 ( ):    
:       
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼 
1.        ,         
2. : , , , ,  
3. :, ,  , , 
4. : DOM, CSSOM, ,   
     
5.  :-          

2.
6.  :, ,  —HTTPS, ,  
  
7.  : , ,  ,    

8. :         
󹶓󹶔󹶕󹶖󹶗󹶘
      
 -        
  ,    
 ,       (  
  ),   
     
 
     
Chrome, Firefox, Safari,  Edge ,   :  
   ,         ,   
,           
 -
5.                FTP      
             
:󷇮󷇭    :      
  WhatsApp, ,          

 ,    ,     ,      

      
,   ,     ""      (, )
 ()     ""    (FTP)   
  '               
 FTP  ,  ,       -- 
      
       
󷩡󷩟󷩠FTP  -   
FTP  -  '           
 :
2.
1. FTP   (          )   ,    
    : FileZilla, Cyberduck, WinSCP
2. FTP  ( )-          ,   
,    '    
  ""       ()  ()  

FTP  
 ,   
 ( )   (  )   ,

 
FTP     
󽁌󽁍󽁎FTP       
  FTP     --    :
1.    
o ,   IP     (  ' 21)    FTP
   
o  
     
 ,  
 
   (    )   
2.     
FTP  
,        ,      
:
o  (  ):  "   "  "
  "      
o   (  
):        ()
 
2.
  FTP  
  
         
     
3.    
FTP       :
o  :        
o  :     (    
      )
4.      
o    : 
   FTP     
 (      )
o     :  FTP     '  
  (        )
5.   
       ,      -   
          
󹺟󹺠󹺡󹺞FTP      
     , 
   ,       
           
1.  
  ', FTP            
    :             ( 
           ' )
      ,     
2.   
     :    
      
             
---  :         
        
  :     FTP      
   
󺬥󺬦󺬧FTP     
2.
FTP    ,        :
1. FTPS (FTP )
o  FTP  SSL/TLS   
o ,     ""   ,     
   
2. SFTP (SSH     )
o   (SSH)    
o FTPS  ,     , SFTP       
   
o    '    
      
   
 
3.  FTP ( )
o   " "          
     ,   ' /   

o             
󷇳    FTP  
   
    FTP      ,   
   
   
  '    ,   
    
        '    
 
 (HTML, CSS, , )        '   
 ?
: FTP
FTP        
1.       '    
2.          FTP    
3.    (  “index.html,” , )   
4.     ,      URL   ,
     
 , FTP       '      
 
 ,     (   , , )  
     FTP    
2.
󽀼󽀽󽁀󽁁󽀾󽁂󽀿󽁃FTP:     
 
        
 '   ' 
       
 
 FTP    
 (FTPS, SFTP)     
          

󹴞󹴟󹴠󹴡󹶮󹶯󹶰󹶱󹶲 :      
FTP,    ,   ( ,   , ) 
   ,          
   
     ,  SFTP  FTPS     
,             
 ,    
  ,      ,    
FTP 
    ,       
6.                
         '  ,   
,       
:󷊆󷊇     
   
1.   (UX)
 
       3       
  
           "
" (  
   )   
   ,       
2.     (SEO)
2.
           
        ,     

 
3.   
-  ,      
        100-      
    
4.    
    '   ,       
       ,        
 
 
5.   
           
   
       
 ,          :    


,          
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼           
          
1.  
    '       ,      
 60%                 
 
       :
   :
o   JPEG    ( ,  )
o     PNG   
o ,      WebP  AVIF   
   :
o TinyPNG  ImageOptim         
   
 
  :
2.
o -  (  )  -   
 :
o             ,
   
 :
   
 
       
  
 ,    '
2. 
            ,     
      
   :
  :
o    '   (CSS, JS, )   
o     
 ,       
 
-  :
o  '        ,    
     
 
    (CDN):
o             
o        ,     
 :
  
  
   
3.  
  '   —HTML, CSS,  JavaScript   
  ,              ,
      
  ?
 , ,      
2.
:
/*  */
 {
-: ;
: 0;
}
/*  */
{
-:#fff;:0;}
  :
UglifyJS, CSSNano, HTMLMinifier
   (, )    
 :
  
 
 
4.    
  ,      ,      :
HTTP   :     
    :     JavaScript 
    :,      
GZIP/Brotli    :   '    
 
    :      
       
󹶓󹶔󹶕󹶖󹶗󹶘:      
     :
[ ]
[//] → [   +  ] → [ ]
[,   ]
 
              
2.
󼩺󼩻   
    :
           ,  
()              
  
            ,  ()
      
             
   
  ,     
    ()   
   
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼 
1.      , SEO, ,  ,
      
2.      
      
 
3.       ,  
     
 
4.     ,     
 
5. ,  ,  CDN     

 
󹶓󹶔󹶕󹶖󹶗󹶘
  ,          
  
      ,     
 , 
    ,   
 ,     
  , ,    '   ,    
            '  , 
      ,       
 -   
                
     
  '         ,  
:      -  ,    ,   
 
2.
-
7. HTML              
HTML              
      
:    :      
   
     
      
      
 (1, 2, 3)   
 
    ,
       , 
   (•)  
   
 
,      
          HTML     '   
        '   ,   HTML  
      -     
HTML   ?
    ,  HTML         
             :
      
       
 , ,       
HTML   '        :
1.   (<ol>)-     
2.     (<ul>)-    
3.    (<dl>)-      (   )
 ,   ,   ,     '   

       
  -    
   
           
  
     ,       

2.
HTML ,    <ol> (  )    <li> (  )   
   
 :
<h3>   </h3>
<ol>
<li> </li>
<li>   </li>
<li> </li>
<li> </li>
<li>    </li>
</ol>
:
1.  
2.   
3.  
4.  
5.      
     
? 
         
, ,       
    
,       : , , ,  ,   


            -     

  , HTML <ul> (unordered list) <li> (  )    
 :
<h3>   </h3>
<ul>
<li></li>
<li></li>
<li></li>
<li></li>
</ul>
:
2.




-     
? 
    
   , ,
        
     
     :

  (<ol>)
    (<ul>)

     (1, 2,
3)
    (•)
 

   
  

 
, , , 
   ,  , 

HTML 
<ol> <li>  
<ul> <li>  
  -    
 ,    
             -
       ,  
      ,  
        :

o  
o 

o 
o  

o 
o 
HTML , 
     (        )  
 :
2.
<h3>   </h3>
<ul>
<li>  
<ul>
<li> </li>
<li></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<ul>
<li></li>
<li> </li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>
<ul>
<li></li>
<li></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
:

o  
o 

o 
o  

o 
o 
     
? 
       -
              
HTML   - 
   
HTML               !
1.  :   '  (" |   | ")   ' 
        
2.
2.   :           

3.     :       
      
4.       :      
     
 
          :
   (<ol>)
1.  
2.  
3.  
    (<ul>)
 
 
 
  
  1
-   1.1
-   1.2
  2
-   2.1

HTML                 
       ,     
       
 --        
           

 -     ,     
 ,  
   ,    ,      ,  
    ,           

2.
8.      HTML           
  ,               , 
                   
 
:   
       
  -
,      :    ,   ,  
      
      ,  
       
       , 
              HTML  
  - 
        '       
 , 
   HTML      ,  
   ,    ,      ,   
           (  CSS  
)   
        
HTML              -  
  '       ,   -,   ,  

 :
o    
o   (, ,  )
o  
o   ( ,      )
    :
o      ( 1990     ,   CSS  
 )
o    (     ,    
)
 ,             ,
    
   HTML   
 HTML           :
<> →    
2.
<tr> →  
<td> →   
<th> →    (     )
 :     
< ="1">
<tr>
<th></th>
<th></th>
<th></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>  </td>
<td>₹250</td>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td> </td>
<td>₹180</td>
<td>
</td>
</tr>
</>
 ():



  
₹250

 
₹180

     -     
       
 , 
           ,  -
 , 
" "        
colspan →    ' ( ) 
 
rowspan →    ' ( ) 
 
 :    
< ="1">
<tr>
<th></th>
2.
<th colspan="2">-</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td></td>


</tr>
</>
 ():

 - (2      )



 :    
html
< ="1">
<tr>
<th rowspan="2"></th>
<th></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th></th>
</tr>
<tr>

<td>85</td>
</tr>
</>
, “Name”      
   
HTML        :
<thead> →      
<tbody> →      
<tfoot> →      
     ,         
  
 :      
2.
html
< ="1">
<thead>
<tr>
<th></th>
<th></th>
<th></th>
</tr>
</head>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td></td>
<td>2</td>
<td>₹50,000</td>
</tr>
<tr>

<td>5</td>
<td>₹500</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
<tfoot>
<tr>
<td colspan="2"></td>
<td>₹1,02,500</td>
</tr>
</tfoot>
</>
 ():
 
 


2
₹50,000

5
₹500
 ()
₹1,02,500
         colspan="2"     
           
      :

  (  )    
 , -,      
    (          
     )
2.
    :

  (, , )       

            

     (CSS     )
 :
CSS  :-  (  )  
CSS :-  (    )   
 ,        ,        - 
 ,    
   
            :
  ()    ()  
 -  
 
 -  (   , , ) 
 
 ,     (/)  
 '     ,        
  
        
 
: HTML  
     - 
 
 
1. HTML       
2.  :<>, <tr>, <td>, <th>
2.
3.     : ()   ()   
4.   :  <thead>, <tbody>, <tfoot>   
5.    :     ,     
6.  :      CSS     


HTML           
 ,   -
   
    ,     

  ,   ,       
  ,        ,  CSS  

 ,    
    ,   :   ' 
 , ,    '   ' 
"                  

          ,           "